Rachel Akhazemea Essay

In the novel of mice and men John Steinbeck uses the two protagonists Lennie small and George Milton to show morals through-out the novella. Steinbeck uses the main characters to portrait the American dream. I realize Steinbeck vaguely gets us to explore each character feeling by feeling, but in the time of age they’re living in we get a clearer understanding of why they are the way they are. In this essay I will discuss the relationship between both George and Lennie, and why Steinbeck has decided to use two completely different characters in the same content. A rather key way in which Steinbeck introduces Lennie and George is through the use of description. In the opening of the novel, Steinbeck decides to create suspense for the characters. He uses metaphorical language to compare Lennie like an animal â€Å"the way a bear drags his paws†, the idea of Steinbeck doing this allows the reader to assumedly suggest what type of person Lennie is straight away, the imagery of the bear represents how masculine, strong and loud Lennie comes across to be, but on the other hand it could represent how sometimes a bear is unaware of its actions and is dangerous, therefore this foreshadows what happens later on in the novel. Our understanding of Lennie begins to grow as we read further on into the novel. We know Lennie is seen as a strong character physically and George is a strong character verbally, but not so much physically as Lennie. The relationship may face some challenges as they’re dialect is obviously different, you would assume two close friends would show unity in the way they come across, but Steinbeck doesn’t use this typical idea of friendship in the novel. As we read further on in the book we create an image for both characters. We start to realise how Lennie treats George as a father figure. Lennie, despite being slow and easily confused, is sure of this friendship. We see this when Lennie is subjected to answer Crooks’ joke when he says George might abandon him, Lennie jumps to reply â€Å"George wouldn’t do nothing like that† this shows that as dim-witted as Lennie seems, he will continue to reassure himself and believe that George would never leave because of the value of their relationship, from Lennie’s point of view, George is the most important person in his life his guardian and only friend. We also see that Lennie is reluctant and naà ¯ve; â€Å"but I wouldn’t eat none, George I’d leave it all for you. You could cover your beans with it and I wouldn’t touch none of it† the fact that Lennie outbursts in apology after George expresses to him his anger, goes to show the extent of earnestness Lennie has for their relationship, the idea that he is willing to sacrifice his desire (being ketchup) just shows how much he truly cares about George. We also see how much Lennie is dependant of George as he obeys George: â€Å"Yes† Lennie turned his head. â€Å"No, Lennie. Look down there across the river; you can almost see the place† Lennie obeys George† the fact that Lennie obeys George quickly shows there is a certain amount of respect for George, it shows he trusts George in whatever is being said, But we can then perceive this in two ways; a threatening, cruel way, or just the fact that Lennie understands the level of respect required with George. This also suggests to the reader that there are barriers in the relationship that affect how they treat each other, when Lennie chooses to obey George it may also show how Lennie cant decide for himself and he needs George to make his decisions for him. On the other hand, I have explored the way Lennie’s and George’s characters may change once they are around other people. We can also link this to the way George treats Lennie, George who is constructed as a responsible father-like man, and then seen as a reluctant carer to Lennie can be seen as a battle between two personalities in one person. We realise George’s personality changes when he is talking to Lennie and referring to the dream they both share: â€Å"George’s voice became deeper. He repeated his words rhythmically as though he had said them many times before. â€Å"Guys like us work on ranches†¦Ã¢â‚¬  the fact that Georges voice begins to get deeper as he starts to explain the dream shows how he feels towards it, sweet passionate George begins to reveal itself to the reader implying his interest in what he’s explaining, and it becomes more than words that he is speaking. But we then realise the contrast when George is talking amongst his work friends, George refers to Lennie as a â€Å"Crazy bastard† his dialect is a complete transition from when he was explaining the dream passionately. Describing Lennie as a crazy bastard may give the impression to the reader that George pretends he doesn’t understand the way Lennie is when he behaves unnecessary, showing how he may want to seem bigger than what he really is, in front of his work friends. George finds it hard to show his true love and compassion towards Lennie when around other people. In Chapter three George is talking to slim about the past, George explains to him how him and Lennie grew up together as neighbours, George mentions that when he first began travelling with Lennie he found it funny to play pranks on Lennie, but as they grew older they were no longer fun. We realise the relationship comes across barriers and obstacles especially because Lennie had a mental disability. â€Å"George herd Lennies whimpering cry and wheeled about, â€Å"blubbering like a baby! Jesus Christ! A big guy like you!† Lennies lip quivered and tears started in his eyes, â€Å"aw, Lennie† George put his hands on Lennie’s shoulder . â€Å"I aint taking it away for meanness, that mouse aint fresh..ect† Lennie cries like a baby, his reaction can be compared to a baby when they get told off, this may show mental weakness. The main thing about it is seeing a grown man cry, What is also interesting is now that George has made Lennie cry, George is considerably softened up by Lennies tears, Georges quick reply was â€Å"I aint taking it away jus for meanness† this shows George has a passionate side, he doesn’t want Lennie to be upset, but he still needs to show some control. We also recognize the quick transition in George as his emotions change from firm to soft, some people might perceive this is another way, the fact that George switches the way he talks to Lennie so sudden may show he is forced to put on a responsible role, George doesn’t want to be mean to Lennie, but Lennies behaviour forces him to. George’s sharp words can sometimes come across threatening to Lennie, his role of having to be responsible and caring towards him can be challenging for George. Into the second chapter as Lennie and George arrive at the camp and eventually go into meet the boss, George is very keen on being in control. His constant use of language is used to dominate the conversation. â€Å"Whats your name?† â€Å"George Milton† â€Å"and yours?† â€Å"George said, â€Å"His names Lennie small†. This shows us that George is carefully thinking about what may happen if he allows Lennie to talk, with full understanding that if Lennie says something out of content, they might loose their opportunity of working there. When we come to talk about how others may see the relationship, I find the boss’s perceiptive can be very intresting, as the boss is conversating with Small and Milton, the boss starts to suspect that George is using lennie to steal his money â€Å"he hacked his thumbs in his belt and squinted one eye nearly closed. Say what you sellin?† â€Å"huh?† â€Å"I said what stake you got in this guy† The boss miss interprets George’s authority and sees it as a way of George benefiting himself by taking Lennies money. When George knows he uses his authorative role to benefit them from losing their jobs. Later on in the novella, it is evident that George begins to feel fed up with Lennie, having to move locations all the time for every little mistake Lennie does. The fact that George ends ups killing Lennie clearly shows his lack of faith. George comes to a realisation that Lennie can not carry on the journey with him especially when he seems to be limiting him from going anywhere. I believe Steinbeck wants the reader to understand that sometimes you need to do the worst things to get the best results. He uses these two reluctant characters to portrait a hidden hope between them both, but the hope ends up getting crushed once George kills Lennie, which seemed like it was for the best. With a wider insight of what Steinbeck uses the characters for. I’ve analysed the way he uses the American dream with Lennie and George to separate them from the rest of the workmen. Lennie and George both share the same dream which keeps their hope through out their stay at their workplace. George says: â€Å"with us it aint like that. We got somebody to talk to that gives a damn about us. We don’t have so sit in no bar room blowin in our jack jus because we got no place to go, if them other guys gets in jail they can rot for all anybody gives a damn. But not us.. â€Å"the fact that George separates him and lennie from the other guys shows he sees everyone else differently, it shows they have a different mind-set to the rest of the guys and it shows they believe in something bigger and greater than in the walls of the ranch. Throughout the novel, Lennie seems to be unaware of what is right and what is wrong, and this comes across as a burden on george as he has to correct gim for every wrong thing he does. George knows just how easy his life could be without Lennie and all the confusion he causes. We understand this because at the start of the book George tells Lennie how he would get a decent job with nice guys to talk to and a good pay. Then at the end spend as much as he wanted. George’s life has been made harder because of Lennie, and until Lennie goes, he’ll forever be unhappy. When George is conversing with the boss, it’s interesting to see how Lennie can hide his strength which only emphasizes his weakness. The boss seems interested in hearing what Lennie can do, because of his masculinity and size, but now that Lennie has been forbidden to talk by George, he is afraid to communicate; â€Å"The boss pointed a playful finger at Lennie â€Å" he ain’t much of a talker, is he?† he’s sure a hell of a good worker. Strong as a bull† The fact that lennie is described as another animal for the 2nd time in this novel re-enforces Steinbecks idea of Lennie, it repeatedly foreshadows his behaviour now and what it could turn out to be, an animal has a lower mind-set than a human, less knowledgeable and less understanding. This episode also highlights’ how Lennie is weaker than George, Lennies physical build is very deceiving and he is limited by his mental ability and by his utter subjugation to George. We also realise the different types of features used such as imagery, metaphors and similes to dominate the scene or setting. â€Å"A water snake glided smoothly up the pool, twisting its periscope head from side to side, and it swam the length of the pool and came to the legs of a motionless heron that stood in the shallow. A silent head and beak lanced down and plucked it out by the head and the beak swallowed the little snake while its tail waved frantically† the great imagery here is used to begin section 6 to describe a setting like the ‘Garden of Eden’ this gives the reader a hint of what the scene may look like, a paradise heaven. The sliding snake represents the tempting serpent from the Garden of Eden, this symbolism is used to suggest the predatory nature of the world foreshadowing Lennies quick death. The innocent snake narrated in the beginning of the novel is now un-expectedly taken from the world and soon Lennie’s life will be taken from the world just as un expected as the snake. The idea that the snake is classed in a lower category than the Heron shows the difference between George and Lennie, George representing the predator and Lennie as the prey. We can often question ourselves on the way Steinbeck decided to end the book. The ending was certainly optimistic and interesting and especially un-expected. I believe Steinbeck wanted to get across to the readers that in order to pursue our dreams, we have to get rid of what’s stopping us from achieving, and in this case Lennie was topping George. Steinbeck also wants us to realise the amount of determination you need when you desperately want something. A successful way in which Steinbeck ends the novel is in the way he links it to the American Dream. The two protagonists lennie small and george Milton clearly help structure the hole idea of the American dream and the deep morals that come along side it. The American dream tells us that everyone is equal and everyone has same rights to achieve success, as long as effort is put into it. In this case, Lennie and George would love to persue their dream together, but Lennie’s mental ability and slow mindset holds them both back from achieving and becoming successful, Steinbeck clearly show this by proving – in order to persue your dreams, you need full submission, meaning getting rid of anything that is holding you back, and in this case, Lennie. Another way in which we could perceive the way Steinbeck uses the characters to portrait the American dream, is through their characteristics. Pursuing something great requires a lot of determination and a right mind set, it wasn’t that Lennie and George had no determination but lennie wasn’t in the perfect mind state to pursue the dream, so by George ending Lennies life, it allowed the extra stress to be released of Georges shoulders. Steinbeck simply uses this to show the reality side of things. The idea that the dream was reachable, but once George gave up on Lennie the dream became no longer attainable. The American dream was for anyone stable enough to work for what they want and to achieve it, but the purpose of the ending was another way of telling people that having a dream and striving for it is definitely not easy, he also gets us to understand that even though everyone around you may not believe in what you do, it does not mean you should stop believing in it. The main core of this novel was the suspense built between Lennie and George to show having a strong desire for something isn’t impossible.

AP Essay: Maria W. Stewart Essay

The Great Missippi In the passage â€Å"Rising Tide: The Great Mississippi Flood of 1927† the author John M. Barry describes elaborately the functions and complexity of the Mississippi River. The author wants to inform the reader about the fascinating characteristic the Mississippi River offers, through a descriptive and informative passage. The author’s fascination of the river is incredible due to the simple, solid facts that are stated. Throughout the passage the author uses many rhetorical devices to amplify his message such as diction, vivid imagery, and simile. The author uses a series of rhetorical devices in the passage such as asyndeton to help communicate his fascination of rivers to the reader. An example of this is â€Å"It generates its own internal forces through its size, its sediment load, its depth, variations in its bottom, its ability to cave in the riverbank and slide sideways for miles, and even tidal influences†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (20-23). This example is very useful to our understanding of rivers because it’s very detailed and rich in in facts. Another rhetorical device the author uses in the passage is the usage of similes. A clear example of this is â€Å"Rather, it moves south in layers and whorls, like an uncoiling rope made up of a multitude of discrete fibers†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (36-38). This is a very interesting example of a simile, simply because it compares two things with very descriptive words and because it gives the reader a more concrete understanding of the rivers strength. It also makes the reader become more engaged and interested to the passage. The last rhetorical device in the passage is the use of vivid imagery. The author uses this powerful device in the passage to amplify and captivate the reader. An example of this is â€Å"Humphreys observed an eddy, running upstream at seven miles an hour and extending half across the river, whirling and foaming†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (47-49). This example helps the reader emphasize the rivers complexity and.

A Game of Thrones Chapter Eleven

Daenerys Daenerys Targaryen wed Khal Drogo with fear and barbaric splendor in a field beyond the walls of Pentos, for the Dothraki believed that all things of importance in a man's life must be done beneath the open sky. Drogo had called his khalasar to attend him and they had come, forty thousand Dothraki warriors and uncounted numbers of women, children, and slaves. Outside the city walls they camped with their vast herds, raising palaces of woven grass, eating everything in sight, and making the good folk of Pentos more anxious with every passing day. â€Å"My fellow magisters have doubled the size of the city guard,† Illyrio told them over platters of honey duck and orange snap peppers one night at the manse that had been Drogo's. The khal had joined his khalasar, his estate given over to Daenerys and her brother until the wedding. â€Å"Best we get Princess Daenerys wedded quickly before they hand half the wealth of Pentos away to sellswords and bravos,† Ser Jorah Mormont jested. The exile had offered her brother his sword the night Dany had been sold to Kbal Drogo; Viserys had accepted eagerly. Mormont had been their constant companion ever since. Magister Illyrio laughed lightly through his forked beard, but Viserys did not so much as smile. â€Å"He can have her tomorrow, if he likes,† her brother said. He glanced over at Dany, and she lowered her eyes. â€Å"So long as he pays the price.† Illyrio waved a languid hand in the air, rings glittering on his fat fingers. â€Å"I have told you, all is settled. Trust me. The khal has promised you a crown, and you shall have it.† â€Å"Yes, but when?† â€Å"When the khal chooses,† Illyrio said. â€Å"He will have the girl first, and after they are wed he must make his procession across the plains and present her to the dosh khaleen at Vaes Dothrak. After that, perhaps. If the omens favor war.† Viserys seethed with impatience. â€Å"I piss on Dothraki omens. The Usurper sits on my father's throne. How long must I wait?† Illyrio gave a massive shrug. â€Å"You have waited most of your life, great king. What is another few months, another few years?† Ser Jorah, who had traveled as far east as Vaes Dothrak, nodded in agreement. â€Å"I counsel you to be patient, Your Grace. The Dothraki are true to their word, but they do things in their own time. A lesser man may beg a favor from the khal, but must never presume to berate him.† Viserys bristled. â€Å"Guard your tongue, Mormont, or I'll have it out. I am no lesser man, I am the rightful Lord of the Seven Kingdoms. The dragon does not beg.† Ser Jorah lowered his eyes respectfully. Illyrio smiled enigmatically and tore a wing from the duck. Honey and grease ran over his fingers and dripped down into his beard as he nibbled at the tender meat. There are no more dragons, Dany thought, staring at her brother, though she did not dare say it aloud. Yet that night she dreamt of one. Viserys was hitting her, hurting her. She was naked, clumsy with fear. She ran from him, but her body seemed thick and ungainly. He struck her again. She stumbled and fell. â€Å"You woke the dragon,† he screamed as he kicked her. â€Å"You woke the dragon, you woke the dragon.† Her thighs were slick with blood. She closed her eyes and whimpered. As if in answer, there was a hideous ripping sound and the crackling of some great fire. When she looked again, Viserys was gone, great columns of flame rose all around, and in the midst of them was the dragon. It turned its great head slowly. When its molten eyes found hers, she woke, shaking and covered with a fine sheen of sweat. She had never been so afraid . . .. . . until the day of her wedding came at last. The ceremony began at dawn and continued until dusk, an endless day of drinking and feasting and fighting. A mighty earthen ramp had been raised amid the grass palaces, and there Dany was seated beside Khal Drogo, above the seething sea of Dothraki. She had never seen so many people in one place, nor people so strange and frightening. The horselords might put on rich fabrics and sweet perfumes when they visited the Free Cities, but out under the open sky they kept the old ways. Men and women alike wore painted leather vests over bare chests and horsehair leggings cinched by bronze medallion belts, and the warriors greased their long braids with fat from the rendering pits. They gorged themselves on horseflesh roasted with honey and peppers, drank themselves blind on fermented mare's milk and Illyrio's fine wines, and spat jests at each other across the fires, their voices harsh and alien in Dany's ears. Viserys was seated just below her, splendid in a new black wool tunic with a scarlet dragon on the chest. Illyrio and Ser Jorah sat beside him. Theirs was a place of high honor, just below the khal's own bloodriders, but Dany could see the anger in her brother's lilac eyes. He did not like sitting beneath her, and he fumed when the slaves offered each dish first to the khal and his bride, and served him from the portions they refused. He could do nothing but nurse his resentment, so nurse it he did, his mood growing blacker by the hour at each insult to his person. Dany had never felt so alone as she did seated in the midst of that vast horde. Her brother had told her to smile, and so she smiled until her face ached and the tears came unbidden to her eyes. She did her best to hide them, knowing how angry Viserys would be if he saw her crying, terrified of how Khal Drogo might react. Food was brought to her, steaming joints of meat and thick black sausages and Dothraki blood pies, and later fruits and sweetgrass stews and delicate pastries from the kitchens of Pentos, but she waved it all away. Her stomach was a roil, and she knew she could keep none of it down. There was no one to talk to. Khal Drogo shouted commands and jests down to his bloodriders, and laughed at their replies, but he scarcely glanced at Dany beside him. They had no common language. Dothraki was incomprehensible to her, and the khal knew only a few words of the bastard Valyrian of the Free Cities, and none at all of the Common Tongue of the Seven Kingdoms. She would even have welcomed the conversation of Illyrio and her brother, but they were too far below to hear her. So she sat in her wedding silks, nursing a cup of honeyed wine, afraid to eat, talking silently to herself. I am blood of the dragon, she told herself. I am Daenerys Stormborn, Princess of Dragonstone, of the blood and seed of Aegon the Conqueror. The sun was only a quarter of the way up the sky when she saw her first man die. Drums were beating as some of the women danced for the khal. Drogo watched without expression, but his eyes followed their movements, and from time to time he would toss down a bronze medallion for the women to fight over. The warriors were watching too. One of them finally stepped into the circle, grabbed a dancer by the arm, pushed her down to the ground, and mounted her right there, as a stallion mounts a mare. Illyrio had told her that might happen. â€Å"The Dothraki mate like the animals in their herds. There is no privacy in a khalasar, and they do not understand sin or shame as we do.† Dany looked away from the coupling, frightened when she realized what was happening, but a second warrior stepped forward, and a third, and soon there was no way to avert her eyes. Then two men seized the same woman. She heard a shout, saw a shove, and in the blink of an eye the arakhs were out, long razor-sharp blades, half sword and half scythe. A dance of death began as the warriors circled and slashed, leaping toward each other, whirling the blades around their heads, shrieking insults at each clash. No one made a move to interfere. It ended as quickly as it began. The arakhs shivered together faster than Dany could follow, one man missed a step, the other swung his blade in a flat arc. Steel bit into flesh just above the Dothraki's waist, and opened him from backbone to belly button, spilling his entrails into the dust. As the loser died, the winner took hold of the nearest woman—not even the one they had been quarreling over—and had her there and then. Slaves carried off the body, and the dancing resumed. Magister Illyrio had warned Dany about this too. â€Å"A Dothraki wedding without at least three deaths is deemed a dull affair,† he had said. Her wedding must have been especially blessed; before the day was over, a dozen men had died. As the hours passed, the terror grew in Dany, until it was all she could do not to scream. She was afraid of the Dothraki, whose ways seemed alien and monstrous, as if they were beasts in human skins and not true men at all. She was afraid of her brother, of what he might do if she failed him. Most of all, she was afraid of what would happen tonight under the stars, when her brother gave her up to the hulking giant who sat drinking beside her with a face as still and cruel as a bronze mask. I am the blood of the dragon, she told herself again. When at last the sun was low in the sky, Khal Drogo clapped his hands together, and the drums and the shouting and feasting came to a sudden halt. Drogo stood and pulled Dany to her feet beside him. It was time for her bride gifts. And after the gifts, she knew, after the sun had gone down, it would be time for the first ride and the consummation of her marriage. Dany tried to put the thought aside, but it would not leave her. She hugged herself to try to keep from shaking. Her brother Viserys gifted her with three handmaids. Dany knew they had cost him nothing; Illyrio no doubt had provided the girls. Irri and Jhiqui were copper-skinned Dothraki with black hair and almond-shaped eyes, Doreah a fair-haired, blue-eyed Lysene girl. â€Å"These are no common servants, sweet sister,† her brother told her as they were brought forward one by one. â€Å"Illyrio and I selected them personally for you. Irri will teach you riding, Jhiqui the Dothraki tongue, and Doreah will instruct you in the womanly arts of love.† He smiled thinly. â€Å"She's very good, Illyrio and I can both swear to that.† Ser Jorah Mormont apologized for his gift. â€Å"It is a small thing, my princess, but all a poor exile could afford,† he said as he laid a small stack of old books before her. They were histories and songs of the Seven Kingdoms, she saw, written in the Common Tongue. She thanked him with all her heart. Magister Illyrio murmured a command, and four burly slaves hurried forward, bearing between them a great cedar chest bound in bronze. When she opened it, she found piles of the finest velvets and damasks the Free Cities could produce . . . and resting on top, nestled in the soft cloth, three huge eggs. Dany gasped. They were the most beautiful things she had ever seen, each different than the others, patterned in such rich colors that at first she thought they were crusted with jewels, and so large it took both of her hands to hold one. She lifted it delicately, expecting that it would be made of some fine porcelain or delicate enamel, or even blown glass, but it was much heavier than that, as if it were all of solid stone. The surface of the shell was covered with tiny scales, and as she turned the egg between her fingers, they shimmered like polished metal in the light of the setting sun. One egg was a deep green, with burnished bronze flecks that came and went depending on how Dan y turned it. Another was pale cream streaked with gold. The last was black, as black as a midnight sea, yet alive with scarlet ripples and swirls. â€Å"What are they?† she asked, her voice hushed and full of wonder. â€Å"Dragon's eggs, from the Shadow Lands beyond Asshai,† said Magister Illyrio. â€Å"The eons have turned them to stone, yet still they burn bright with beauty.† â€Å"I shall treasure them always.† Dany had heard tales of such eggs, but she had never seen one, nor thought to see one. It was a truly magnificent gift, though she knew that Illyrio could afford to be lavish. He had collected a fortune in horses and slaves for his part in selling her to Khal Drogo. The khal's bloodriders offered her the traditional three weapons, and splendid weapons they were. Haggo gave her a great leather whip with a silver handle, Cohollo a magnificent arakh chased in gold, and Qotho a double-curved dragonbone bow taller than she was. Magister Illyrio and Ser Jorah had taught her the traditional refusals for these offerings. â€Å"This is a gift worthy of a great warrior, O blood of my blood, and I am but a woman. Let my lord husband bear these in my stead.† And so Khal Drogo too received his â€Å"bride gifts.† Other gifts she was given in plenty by other Dothraki: slippers and jewels and silver rings for her hair, medallion belts and painted vests and soft furs, sandsilks and jars of scent, needles and feathers and tiny bottles of purple glass, and a gown made from the skin of a thousand mice. â€Å"A handsome gift, Khaleesi,† Magister Illyrio said of the last, after he had told her what it was. â€Å"Most lucky.† The gifts mounted up around her in great piles, more gifts than she could possibly imagine, more gifts than she could want or use. And last of all, Khal Drogo brought forth his own bride gift to her. An expectant hush rippled out from the center of the camp as he left her side, growing until it had swallowed the whole khalasar. When he returned, the dense press of Dothraki gift-givers parted before him, and he led the horse to her. She was a young filly, spirited and splendid. Dany knew just enough about horses to know that this was no ordinary animal. There was something about her that took the breath away. She was grey as the winter sea, with a mane like silver smoke. Hesitantly she reached out and stroked the horse's neck, ran her fingers through the silver of her mane. Khal Drogo said something in Dothraki and Magister Illyrio translated. â€Å"Silver for the silver of your hair, the khal says.† â€Å"She's beautiful,† Dany murmured. â€Å"She is the pride of the khalasar, † Illyrio said. â€Å"Custom decrees that the khaleesi must ride a mount worthy of her place by the side of the khal.† Drogo stepped forward and put his hands on her waist. He lifted her up as easily as if she were a child and set her on the thin Dothraki saddle, so much smaller than the ones she was used to. Dany sat there uncertain for a moment. No one had told her about this part. â€Å"What should I do?† she asked Illyrio. It was Ser Jorah Mormont who answered. â€Å"Take the reins and ride. You need not go far.† Nervously Dany gathered the reins in her hands and slid her feet into the short stirrups. She was only a fair rider; she had spent far more time traveling by ship and wagon and palanquin than by horseback. Praying that she would not fall off and disgrace herself, she gave the filly the lightest and most timid touch with her knees. And for the first time in hours, she forgot to be afraid. Or perhaps it was for the first time ever. The silver-grey filly moved with a smooth and silken gait, and the crowd parted for her, every eye upon them. Dany found herself moving faster than she had intended, yet somehow it was exciting rather than terrifying. The horse broke into a trot, and she smiled. Dothraki scrambled to clear a path. The slightest pressure with her legs, the lightest touch on the reins, and the filly responded. She sent it into a gallop, and now the Dothraki were hooting and laughing and shouting at her as they jumped out of her way. As she turned to ride back, a firepit loomed ahead, directly in her path. They were hemmed in on either side, with no room to stop. A daring she had never known filled Daenerys then, and she gave the filly her head. The silver horse leapt the flames as if she had wings. When she pulled up before Magister Illyrio, she said, â€Å"Tell Khal Drogo that he has given me the wind.† The fat Pentoshi stroked his yellow beard as he repeated her words in Dothraki, and Dany saw her new husband smile for the first time. The last sliver of sun vanished behind the high walls of Pentos to the west just then. Dany had lost all track of time. Khal Drogo commanded his bloodriders to bring forth his own horse, a lean red stallion. As the khal was saddling the horse, Viserys slid close to Dany on her silver, dug his fingers into her leg, and said, â€Å"Please him, sweet sister, or I swear, you will see the dragon wake as it has never woken before.† The fear came back to her then, with her brother's words. She felt like a child once more, only thirteen and all alone, not ready for what was about to happen to her. They rode out together as the stars came out, leaving the khalasar and the grass palaces behind. Khal Drogo spoke no word to her, but drove his stallion at a hard trot through the gathering dusk. The tiny silver bells in his long braid rang softly as he rode. â€Å"I am the blood of the dragon,† she whispered aloud as she followed, trying to keep her courage up. â€Å"I am the blood of the dragon. I am the blood of the dragon.† The dragon was never afraid. Afterward she could not say how far or how long they had ridden, but it was full dark when they stopped at a grassy place beside a small stream. Drogo swung off his horse and lifted her down from hers. She felt as fragile as glass in his hands, her limbs as weak as water. She stood there helpless and trembling in her wedding silks while he secured the horses, and when he turned to look at her, she began to cry. Khal Drogo stared at her tears, his face strangely empty of expression. â€Å"No,† he said. He lifted his hand and rubbed away the tears roughly with a callused thumb. â€Å"You speak the Common Tongue,† Dany said in wonder. â€Å"No,† he said again. Perhaps he had only that word, she thought, but it was one word more than she had known he had, and somehow it made her feel a little better. Drogo touched her hair lightly, sliding the silver-blond strands between his fingers and murmuring softly in Dothraki. Dany did not understand the words, yet there was warmth in the tone, a tenderness she had never expected from this man. He put his finger under her chin and lifted her head, so she was looking up into his eyes. Drogo towered over her as he towered over everyone. Taking her lightly under the arms, he lifted her and seated her on a rounded rock beside the stream. Then he sat on the ground facing her, legs crossed beneath him, their faces finally at a height. â€Å"No,† he said. â€Å"Is that the only word you know?† she asked him. Drogo did not reply. His long heavy braid was coiled in the dirt beside him. He pulled it over his right shoulder and began to remove the bells from his hair, one by one. After a moment Dany leaned forward to help. When they were done, Drogo gestured. She understood. Slowly, carefully, she began to undo his braid. It took a long time. All the while he sat there silently, watching her. When she was done, he shook his head, and his hair spread out behind him like a river of darkness, oiled and gleaming. She had never seen hair so long, so black, so thick. Then it was his turn. He began to undress her. His fingers were deft and strangely tender. He removed her silks one by one, carefully, while Dany sat unmoving, silent, looking at his eyes. When he bared her small breasts, she could not help herself. She averted her eyes and covered herself with her hands. â€Å"No,† Drogo said. He pulled her hands away from her breasts, gently but firmly, then lifted her face again to make her look at him. â€Å"No,† he repeated. â€Å"No,† she echoed back at him. He stood her up then and pulled her close to remove the last of her silks. The night air was chilly on her bare skin. She shivered, and gooseflesh covered her arms and legs. She was afraid of what would come next, but for a while nothing happened. Khal Drogo sat with his legs crossed, looking at her, drinking in her body with his eyes. After a while he began to touch her. Lightly at first, then harder. She could sense the fierce strength in his hands, but he never hurt her. He held her hand in his own and brushed her fingers, one by one. He ran a hand gently down her leg. He stroked her face, tracing the curve of her ears, running a finger gently around her mouth. He put both hands in her hair and combed it with his fingers. He turned her around, massaged her shoulders, slid a knuckle down the path of her spine. It seemed as if hours passed before his hands finally went to her breasts. He stroked the soft skin underneath until it tingled. He circled her nipples with his thumbs, pinched them between thumb and forefinger, then began to pull at her, very lightly at first, then more insistently, until her nipples stiffened and began to ache. He stopped then, and drew her down onto his lap. Dany was flushed and breathless, her heart fluttering in her chest. He cupped her face in his huge hands and looked into his eyes. â€Å"No?† he said, and she knew it was a question. She took his hand and moved it down to the wetness between her thighs. â€Å"Yes,† she whispered as she put his finger inside her.

VLSI Technology and Reliability Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

VLSI Technology and Reliability - Essay Example Introduction Every day in the word transistors sizes and costs are decreasing while as their speed is increasing. The formation of MOS takes place by superimposing several layers of insulating, conducting and transistor forming materials. The CMOS technology provides two types of transistors namely the n-type transistor and the p-type transistor. Motivation The rapidity with which hardware technology is changing motivated writing of the paper. The main aspect was the reason that the hardware prices are getting cheaper while its quality is improving. History of CMOS The CMOS were invented in 1963 by Frank Wanlass. This technology has been used in every electronically digitally integrated circuit in the modern world. This has been made possible by their operating speed also reduction of size in every subsequent production of CMOS (Thes, 2008). The development in CMOS technology tends to rely on Moore’s law, which stated that, â€Å"an approximate 30% reduction in linear dimensi on and introduction of products with the new technology 2 years after the previous† (Sadan & Current, 2002). Figure 1: The three types of CMOS processing n-well, p-well and twin-well (Baker & Jacob, 2010). SOI (Silicon on Insulator) well fabricator on CMOS It was used in selected discrete and integrated circuits in 1960s. It was developed to be used for space exploration making it used in early satellites and space exploration systems (Colinge, 2010). These devices were fabricated with SOS (silicon on sapphire), but recently they are fabricated with SIMOX (separation by Implanted Oxygen). In recent world, SOI fabricators continue to be researched on due to their use in fabrication of the CMOS’s ICs (Marshall and Natarajan, 2002). Industry players believed by 2006-2008 there would be a huge shift to the fully depleted SOI CMOS would occur. During 2010, it was believed that 10% of the transistors would have been using this technology (Baker & Jacob, 2008). Modern usage of SOI wafer 1. IBM is using it in the high-end RS64-IV â€Å"Istar† PowerPC-AS microprocessor in 2000. 2. The making of AMD microprocessor. 3. Used in play station 3 and Wii. 4. Making of Intel processors. 5. Used in silicon photonic. Advantages of SOI 1. They were resistant to ionization by radiation which would have taken place due to the solar wind radiation in space. 2. It was also preferred due to the robust voltage isolation of IC. 3. Due to its ability to offer perfect transistor count which has led to lower leakage in transistors. This characteristic has led to continue use of SOI even in the modern world. 4. It is also known for faster performance and lower power consumption due to its reduced parasitic drain capacitance. 5. It ensures higher transistor count which ensures tighter transistor packing in devices. This ensure in reducing the size of devices. 6. It is seen to be less complex making it a choice by many to use. 7. The buried oxide plays a role within by off ering thermal insulation in SOI. This insulation has an effect of elevating temperature within the SOI device which modifies the output of the device. 8. There is complete avoidance of the latch up problem. Disadvantages 1. The absence of substrate diodes complicates the protection of input and outputs against the ESD pulses. 2. The SOI technology is believed to be expensive making it not to be widely used in the modern world. This is brought forward by the need of single crystal sapphires. 3. There is a predicament with this technology

Drug Courts Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Drug Courts - Research Paper Example Conversely, when those forces are unequal, some economics focus on the 'supply side' of the equation, while others view the 'demand' side as that which needs to be focused on. The history of economics is one that shifts in emphasis from supply to demand and back again. It will be argued in the following that the use of 'diversion' in the courts represents a good step toward tackling the 'demand' side of the drug equation. And, what is important beyond the success or failure, is that it is an attempt to deal with demand rather than continuing the war on drugs that aims mostly at supply. This said, while it is a step in the right direction, there are some important limitations. Community based drug rehabs have had a largely positive outcome. One of the tertiary side effects of wide scale drug use, is the increase in crime as a consequence. While it is the case that drug use itself is largely illegal, that is not the sole crime committed by drug users. There is a large incarceration rat e of individuals who did crimes to support their drug habits [Stone and Stone 95]. This can mean something as simple as a house-robbery, to the large scale distribution of narcotics, to neglecting the welfare of one's children because of the time constraints and debilitating effects of addiction. These three examples stand to show how diverse the consequences of drug addiction is. Policing and thus, the criminal justice system are pretty burdened by drug abuse both in its primary sense, but also in the secondary or tertiary consequences of addicted behaviors. The cost of this involvement is formidable. For instance, where a community based drug rehab was in place in Washington State, the cost to the community for every dollar spent varied from over $ 18 benefit from investing in a community program, just over $ 5. dollars for investing in criminal prosecution and just $ 2.08 for diversion courts [Velazquez 14]. The dollar investment in community based programs is economically much m ore successful than other approaches, and yet, it is estimated that among the population in the US, nine percent of Americans are addicted to some type of narcotic on the one hand, and on the other hand, less than a quarter of those receive substance abuse treatment, and finally, among that quarter, about 37 % of those treated were mandated to do so [Velasquez 14]. Before looking at how and where the drug court system presents itself as limited, as compared, for example, with the optimal course of treatment which is community based, some remarks on the success of drug courts will be presented. Likewise, the rationale behind the very practice will get outlined. The very purpose of drug courts, is to avoid the costly endeavor of criminal incarceration. There is a cost built into housing an individual in jail, but also a larger cost than that when one considers what a criminal record is going to cost that individual [Nolan 129]. For instance, one could describe a 'vicious circle' of cr iminality associated with drug behavior. When a convicted individual returns to the regular world, so to speak, they will find themselves with a very diminished capacity as far as basic opportunities go. A criminal record means that many opportunities that might have once been open to them, are no longer available because of the conviction and incarceration. For instance, when we look at the recidivism rate among individuals who have been convicted, the rate is much higher for people who have a prior criminal conviction [Wolfe,

Multiple myeloma and the pathways associated with it and TGF-B. see Research Paper

Multiple myeloma and the pathways associated with it and TGF-B. see discription of project - Research Paper Example These cells are also characterized by the somatic hyper mutation of the Ig genes extensively. The Multiple myeloma (MM) cells have 1- 3% of the cycling cells with a low rate of proliferation. (Kuehl and Bergsagel, 2012). MM leads to immune deficiency, renal dysfunction, anemia and bone lesions. In United States, its incidence level is at the rate of 20000 per year and records as the second hematopoietic malignancy. Though there is no cure for this disease yet, the survival rate has increased from 3 years to 6 years. (Kuehl and Bergsagel, 2012). The International system of staging has classified multiple myeloma to have three stages: Serum Beta 2 microglobulin , serum albumin, serum creatinine, and platelet count along with the age of the patients are used as the powerful key factors for determining the survival rate of the patients with multiple myeloma. The concentration of serum beta 2 microglobulin in renal filtrate was found to influence the kidney function and also the best indicator of tumor burden in the patients with multiple myeloma. A multivariate analysis has found that serum beta 2 immunoglobulin factor concentrations was independent of serum creatinine and serum albumin concentration and remains as an independent prognostic factor. In stage I, the beta 2 immunoglobulin concentration is 3.5 mg/ L along with serum albumin concentration as 3.5 g / dL. At stage II, is the intermediate stage median survival of about 44 months and the last stage is stage III with median survival of only 29 months and the beta 2 immu noglobulin concentration being 5.5 mg/ L. (Yun et al., 2006). Multiple myeloma is a less frequent fatal cancer in both men and women. Multiple myeloma cases constitute about 0.8% of the cancer cases annually. The most important factors that cause multiple myeloma was found to be Tobacco chewing, Alcohol consumption, Diet, Obesity, different physical activities, some hormonal factors, Ionizing radiation.

Quantitative Tools Group Project Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Quantitative Tools Group Project - Essay Example This write-up presents a discussion about ways for improving the service productivity and operational success of Going Inc’s pilots and customer service agents who present a certain lack of satisfaction in their jobs. Going Inc’s airline business that services the United States, Europe and Asia has a number of problems that confront managers. Going Inc has a higher than industry average figures for flight delays, baggage and security related check-in delays and late arrival figures for flights. In addition to the other problems at Going Inc Airlines, employees present a certain lack of satisfaction and it is important for managers try to improve morale, service productivity and operational success of pilots and customer service agents. Airline pilots are rather different from other employees because they are expensive to train for aircrafts that they must fly and difficult to substitute in a tight labor market for pilots with commercial experience (Harvey. 2007. Pp. 6). Pilots are the most educated and the most assessed of all airline employees who must be constantly trained on aircraft if they are to perform safely and adequately. Thus, airline pilots possess a certain industrial power and management of airline pilots is an exacting endeavor. However, it is important for airlines to try to reduce labor costs in response to stiff competition in the airline industry and to increase productivity in an era of increased uncertainty about profits (Alamdari, 1999, Pp. 53 – 66). Morale is always important when thinking about service productivity and contented employees who feel that they are being well compensated are likely to be more productive. Thus, airline pilots, who often work on substantial compensation pa ckages, should be offered profit sharing and share purchase schemes that indemnify airlines from having to pay out large compensation in

If they dont read much Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

If they dont read much - Essay Example ' and the 'Accelerated Reader' program in place, However, these incentive programs have not had the desired effect of turning children into avid and motivated readers. They are on the contrary according to the author, quite 'de-motivating', as also borne out by research on the same subject by Fawson and Moore (1999). Keeping this in mind, the author has offered some suggestions, which teachers could implement should they feel that their struggling readers are not motivated enough by whatever their respective schools are currently doing to motivate the children to read. Some of the suggestions put forth by the author are as follows: - Revisit teacher read aloud practices. The best way of motivating children to read is to read aloud to the class. When elementary grade students were asked what motivated them to read particular texts, the response in most cases was, "My teacher read it in the class". The same response was equally forthcoming when the same question was put to college students. This is very important when one considers that motivation to read declines as students make the transition from elementary to middle school since "students are more oriented to grades, competition, and their own competence than elementary education" (Guthrie and Davis).

The Analysis of Garys Hart Business Plan Assignment - 1

The Analysis of Garys Hart Business Plan - Assignment Example From information acquired, there are various benefits attached with budgeting or drawing a budget before starting a business organization. First, budgeting organizes business finances available. Drawing a budget helps highlight early warning signals for potential financial crisis likely to occur in carrying on with the business (Bernard 2002, p250). For instance, with a budget, Gary will have guidelines for paying bills and immediate alerts in case there occurs overspendings. Setting up a budget is also a way of opening up communication between Gary and his employees, especially those who will be working in the finance department. This ensures both the entrepreneur and employees are working towards a common goal that keeps them focused. It also involves all employees by teaching them to be responsible and holding on to accountability. This is because the owner already has the estimation of the outcome to expect and any adverse result calls for explanation and accountability form the person in charge. Drawing a budget before starting up a business offers one an opportunity for Gary to make informed decision on spending at any given time. Since Gary will be in a position to determine where his financial stand is, budgeting offers him with chances to take advantage of prospects that he may miss if he had not drawn any budget. With a budget, an entrepreneur will never have to guess since form the beginning, he will have definite knowledge whether he has start up finances or not. It is with the help of a budget that an entrepreneur focuses on financial goals of an organization (Steven, Roby & Gregory 2009, p329). A budget helps one come up with definite objectives that one should focus on. Budgets are usually drawn with the entrepreneur’s motivations in mind. For this case, Gary may be motivated by the fact that he wants to start and run a successful restaurant in the region. Preparing a budget saves time when one is dealing with some transactions. The time s aved can be used in dealing with other transactions.  

How pets help college students cope with stress and anxiety Assignment

How pets help college students cope with stress and anxiety - Assignment Example It has been observed that music therapy, art therapy and pet therapy have been able to decrease the mortality rate and increase the chances of living. According to a study conducted in 1977, pet therapy has been found to be the most efficient form of treatment for patients suffering from psychological distress (Moorhouse, 2009). In the year 1990, Dr. William Thomas used pets in a long-term care facility and the significance of animal usage was clearly visible. Animals helped people to recover fast because they were amused with the presence of animals. The anxiety, tensions and frustrations automatically reduced with the presence of animals. This shows that animals have tremendous effect in coping with psychological distress of patients. An experiment was conducted in the United States by involving fourteen adults with clinical depression in a farm animal-assisted intervention. The patients were allowed to work in the farm fields with animals as well as they were allowed to stay in contact with dairy cattle. Each patient was video-recorded twice during the sessions. After a 12 week session, reports were absolutely in favour of pet therapy. The patients showed improvements tremendously. Their depression and anxiety decreased and self-efficiency increased. Pet therapy has also been found to be effective during the treatment of cancer and chronic illnesses (Pederson, Martinsen & Berget, 2011). This shows that pet therapy is very important form of treatment for a variety of illnesses including depression and anxiety. Pets allow patients to reduce their stress and feel hopeful and happy. This factor helps in the treatment of patients who suffer from depression and they recover fast. Dogs have been used for therapeutic purposes in medical settings. It has been observed that the activities by dogs entertain people, which amuse them. Dogs play a very important role in the

The European Union and NAFTA Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

The European Union and NAFTA - Assignment Example The union which includes among other countries the United Kingdom, Netherlands, Germany, Greece, Austria, Denmark, and Finland was established in the early 1950s (Bomberg, Peterson & Corbett 2012, p. 6). The six founding members of the union include West Germany, the Netherlands, Italy, Luxembourg, France, and Belgium. The union is basically an organization that brings together member states for political and economic reasons. The EU operates through intergovernmental negotiations and is governed by a number of supranational independent institutions (Bomberg, Peterson & Corbett 2012, p. 15). The main institutions that govern the union include the European Central Bank, the European Council, the European Commission, and the European Parliament, just to name a few (Corbett, Jacobs, Shackleton 2011, p. 7). The European Union traces its roots to the period following the Second World War when six countries sought to join forces with the aim of prevention the possibility of war between the mselves (McCormick 2007, p. 64). Under the European Coal and Steel Community banner, the member states agreed to pool national heavy industries thereby eliminating potential conflicts relating to the scramble for raw materials (Bomberg, Peterson & Corbett 2012, p. 18). ... In 1993, the European Union was formally established with the signing of the Maastricht Treaty. Ever since the establishment of the European Coal and Steel Community, the European Community has continued to expand in size and, therefore, power. The European Union has seen its member states cooperate in various ways (Smith 2007, p. 63). At least 12 of the countries have fully adopted the Euro as their national currency, a factor that has seen the easy flow of trade activities between the member countries. Other states use the Euro together with their national currencies to effect transactions. The Union demands that member countries fulfil a number of conditions before they can be formally admitted to the organization (Bomberg, Peterson & Corbett 2012, p. 45). By its demand that member countries and potential members be politically stable and have a democratic government that respects the rule of law and human rights, the union is effectively playing a major role in establishing deep rooted democracy in the region and beyond (Bindi 2010, p.45; Barnard 2007, p. 83). The European Union and the United States of America cooperate in a number of fronts. However, there are cases when the two powers engage in tussles which see them grace the corridors of the World Trade Centre to seek resolutions to their disputes. Considering the need for greater cooperation in terms of trade, the two bodies have been considering instituting a formal agreement that will see them enjoy free trade between themselves (Sutton 2013, par. 1). In this respect, the Transatlantic Free Trade Area (TAFTA), which is currently at a proposal stage, is intended to bring together the two

Assessing Importance of School Factors Such as Racism Essay Example for Free

Assessing Importance of School Factors Such as Racism Essay A variety of material disadvantages that may confront ethnic minorities coming from working class backgrounds are they do not achieve the same level of education. The main achievers are Indian, Chinese and African students, but the lowest achievers are Turkish, Bangladeshi And Afro Caribbean students. The white working class students are the lowest achieving, which is peculiar because most sociologists are white who stereotype and label other students from different backgrounds. The main cause of underachievement in schools are cultural and language factors which sociologists clarify and focus on and are thought to be main cause of everything. Previously the spotlight has been put on what happens in school and racism in common As shown by Cecile Wright, which explains that, Asian students can also be the victims of teachers Cecile found out that regardless of the schools evident promise to equal opportunities, teachers still hold ethnocentric views they believe that British culture and English are greater. This prepared teachers to assume that they would have a poor pronunciation of English and left them out of class debates or used basic, childlike speech when speaking to them. Asian pupils also felt cut off when teachers spoken dissatisfaction of their behaviour or misread their names. Teachers saw them not as a risk but as a difficulty they could take no notice of. This resulted in that Asian pupils in particular the girls were hard-pressed to the limits and disallowed from play a part fully. Close at hand is proof of teacher racial discrimination and harmful labelling. Nevertheless study shows that pupils can take action in variety of ways. They may take action by becoming unsettling or withdrawn but pupils may decline to agree to the label and even choose to prove it incorrect by putting in hard work. Off-putting labels do not repeatedly twist into self-fulfilling prophecy Working class white pupils attain below standards and have lesser desires. There isn’t much parental support at home, which means there is low achievement and goals. Reports show that teachers have to deal with low level of behaviour and discipline in white working class schools. Nevertheless they had fewer kids on benefit programs teachers blame this on inadequate parental support at home and negative attitude that white working class parents have towards their children and their education. The life in the street for white working class can be tough for pupils which means they get used to getting intimidating and intimidate other which they pick up and use in school to cause disruptions and make it hard for other students to succeed at school. Underachievement of student of different is blamed on cultural deprivation. Few sociologists say that Afro-Caribbean families lack a close relationship to their family and therefore are extremely violent towards everything they do. Arguments explain that families aren’t very supportive towards their children and they don’t offer enough cultural capital for their children. Stereotypical views suggest those students are not deprived because of their class or because of their backgrounds. Factors like social class are important to certain ethnic minorities like Pakistanis, Bangladeshis and a considerable amount of Afro-Caribbean students, which are all working class backgrounds in which material deprivation play a main role because to find out why they achieve below the national standards. Sociologists say schools and curriculums made just for one specific group of ethnic minority gives priority to one particular ethnic minority while disregarding other ethnic groups. Some schools have curriculums, which are ethnocentric because they only give priority to English languages. The British curriculum has been described as exclusively British. In history Britain is thought to bring civilisation to ancient people are colonised. Black people as inferior weakens black children’s self esteem and Leads to them to underachieving and failing. It isn’t for sure what effects the ethnocentric study shows that black don’t really suffer from low self esteem. Wright’s study found some ethnic minority groups received poorer interaction from staff. Teachers perceptions were seem as stereotypical although Asian students were seen as good and black students were seen disruptive and disobedient. Study show that schools in cities which contain ethnic minority students were not benefitting in terms of O Levels entries because of being in low set and having to achieve high grade in order to get good results and become successful. Overall taking into consideration we can not split or label ethnicity from social classes and gender since this is really difficult matter as some of the main achieving students are from ethnic minorities so for that reason there isn’t a connection here so we can’t make statements or come to conclusions as to what the association among ethnic groups and schools actually are. Pupils can refuse to accept negative classing and teacher expectations. Sociologists can’t come to a conclusion to explain what occurs between teacher and students or what takes place in different ethnic groups related to education. Students live up to roles they are given but can try to resist the labels and getting put behind by carrying out what is thought of them to do or do what they want to do and achieve good education and become successful.

A History of Pottery

A History of Pottery The production of pottery is one of the most ancient arts. The oldest known body of pottery dates from the Jomon period (from about 10,500 to 400 BC) in Japan; and even the earliest Jomon ceramics exhibit a unique sophistication of technique and design. Excavations in the Near East have revealed that primitive fired-clay vessels were made there more than 8,000 years ago. Potters were working in Iran by about 5500 BC, and earthenware was probably being produced even earlier on the Iranian high plateau. Chinese potters had developed characteristic techniques by about 5000 BC. In the New World many pre-Columbian American cultures developed highly artistic pottery traditions. TYPES OF WARES Pottery comprises three distinctive types of wares. The first type, earthenware, has been made following virtually the same techniques since ancient times; only in the modern era has mass production brought changes in materials and methods. Earthenware is basically composed of clayoften blended claysand baked hard, the degree of hardness depending on the intensity of the heat. After the invention of glazing, earthenwares were coated with glaze to render them waterproof; sometimes glaze was applied decoratively. It was found that, when fired at great heat, the clay body became nonporous. This second type of pottery, called stoneware, came to be preferred for domestic use. The third type of pottery is a Chinese invention that appeared when feldspathic material in a fusible state was incorporated in a stoneware composition. The ancient Chinese called decayed feldspar kaolin (meaning high place, where it was originally found); this substance is known in the West as china clay. Petuntse, or china stone, a less decayed, more fusible feldspathic material, was also used in Chinese porcelain; it forms a white cement that binds together the particles of less fusible kaolin. Significantly, the Chinese have never felt that high-quality porcelain must be either translucent or white. Two types of porcelain evolved: true porcelain, consisting of a kaolin hard-paste body, extremely glassy and smooth, produced by high temperature firing, and soft porcelain, invariably translucent and lead glazed, produced from a composition of ground glass and other ingredients including white clay and fired at a low temperature. The latter was widely produced by 18th-century Europea n potters. It is believed that porcelain was first made by Chinese potters toward the end of the Han period (206 BC-AD 220), when pottery generally became more refined in body, form, and decoration. The Chinese made early vitreous wares (protoporcelain) before they developed their white vitreous ware (true porcelain) that was later so much admired by Europeans. Regardless of time or place, basic pottery techniques have varied little except in ancient America, where the potters wheel was unknown. Among the requisites of success are correct composition of the clay body by using balanced materials; skill in shaping the wet clay on the wheel or pressing it into molds; and, most important, firing at the correct temperature. The last operation depends vitally on the experience, judgment, and technical skill of the potter. DECORATING TECHNIQUES In the course of their long history potters have used many decorating techniques. Among the earliest, impressing and incising of wares are still favored. Ancient potters in Egypt, Mesopotamia, Greece, northern India, and the high regions of Central Asia (where primitive terra-cotta figures associated with religious cults were produced) frequently decorated wares with impressed or incised designs. A notable incising technique developed more recently was that of Korean potters working in the Koryo period (918-1392). These artisans began by ornamenting their celadon wares with delicately incised and impressed patterns and later developed elaborate inlaying by filling incised lines with colored slip (semiliquid clay). Black and white slip was used most effectively for inlaying colored porcelains. Decoration of this sort generally depends more on the skill of the artisan than on the complexity of the tools being used. An especially popular type of decoration involved the sgraffito, or scratched, technique used by Italian potters before the 15th century. This technique, which is thought to have reached Italy from the Near East, was probably derived from China, where it was first used during the Song (Sung) dynasty (960-1279). By the 16th century Italian potters working mainly in Padua and Bologna had developed great skill in sgraffito, which entailed the incising of designs on red or buff earthenware that had been coated with ordinary transparent lead glaze, usually toned yellow or, sometimes, brown, copper, or green. After firing, the wares were dipped into white clay slip so that a dark pattern could be cut on the surface. By cutting through the white slip, the artist produced a design on the exposed red or buff body. Pigments were also sometimes applied. After a further coating of lead glaze the ware was fired a second time. A sound knowledge of glazesboth utilitarian and decorativeis vital to the potter. The origin of glazes and glazing techniques is unknown, but the fine lustrous glazes developed in China surely began with a simple glaze that served to cover earthenware and render it watertight. Chinese potters used two kinds of glazes, one composed basically of feldspar, and another produced by fusing silica of quartz or sand by means of a flux, generally of lead oxide. Chinese potters regarded glazes and glazing techniques as having prime importance; under the Han emperors they made great efforts to improve this technology. The use of lead glaze increased, and wood ash was incorporated to impart a dullish brown or gray green coloring, somewhat blotchy and occasionally iridescent. These effects were entirely natural, as no coloring matter was added to the composition. Glazing techniques were modified under successive dynasties. Colored glazes were developed and used to brilliant effect by Tang (Tang) and Song potters, and a great diversity of brightly hued wares appeared over the centuries. Many connoisseurs feel that the pure white porcelain, called blanc de chine, which first appeared during the Ming dynasty, is the most serenely beautiful of all Chinese ceramics. Dehua (Te-hua) potters in Fujian (Fukien) province, working during the 17th century, produced their blanc de chine masterpieces in the purest white porcelain coated with a thick white glaze. Salt glaze, used by English potters during the early 1700s, may well have been known to the Chinese but was not used by them. Near Eastern potters glazed wares in ancient times. Potters in Mesopotamia and Iran commonly used an alkaline glaze made of quartz mixed with sodium and potassium. An admixture of colored metallic oxides, mostly lead, was introduced later. Painting on pottery and porcelain became richly colorful in many regions and periods. Decorative brush painting directly on the baked clay reached its zenith in China during the Ming dynasty (1368-1644), whose artists were highly skilled at painting in fired colors. For a long period Chinese ceramic artists had used only black or brown pigment to decorate wares that were then covered with clear glaze. It is believed that the appearance in China of 13th-century brush-decorated wares from Persia sparked a change. These works, painted in blue cobalt under the glaze, inspired the brushwork of the Chinese and the resulting so-called blue-and-white style. Ming artists also excelled in painting over the glaze, using brilliant enamel colors. The overglaze technique, which evolved over two centuries, demanded correct preparation of the enamels, skill in application, and the proper (low) firing temperature. The overglaze enamel decorations executed during the reign of Chenghua (1465-87), which were never surpassed in China, incorporated flowers, foliage, and figure subjects against backgrounds of arabesques and scrollwork. Designs enclosed within dark blue outlines were filled in with brilliant color. Enamel decoration of superb quality was also executed in Japan during the Edo period (1615-1868) by celebrated artists and potters of the caliber of Kenzan, Kakiemon, and Ninsei. In the ancient Aegean the potters art developed continuously from the Neolithic period and through the periods of the Minoan and Mycenaean civilizations, culminating, in ancient Greece, in a unique type of painted pottery, which reached its height between the 6th and 4th centuries BC. The finest Greek pottery, especially Attic vases, was exquisitely proportioned and often decorated with finely painted relief work. Unlike artisans in Egypt, Mesopotamia, and Persia, the Attic potters did not apply heavy glaze to their wares. The unique gloss commonly seen on Attic pottery and similar wares made elsewhere in Greece still baffles those who have tried to determine its formula and method of application. Neither a glaze nor a varnish, it is more marked on some areas, such as those painted black, than on others. Some experts conjecture that it may be attributed to illite or a similar clay mineral in a weak solution that was thinly applied to the surface of wares or mixed into the black paint used by the artists. In the Islamic world ceramic decorative art flowered with the creation of a great diversity of painted wares. Painted luster decoration on pottery originated in Mesopotamia and spread to ancient Egypt; later, under Islam in Persia, this type of decoration on white-glazed wares became incredibly brilliant. Islamic luster-painted wares were later imitated by Italian potters during the Renaissance. MAJOR TRADITIONS IN THE WEST After the fall of the ancient Roman Empire potters in Europe produced little other than repetitive utilitarian wares until the end of the Middle Ages. Earthenware A distinctive type of earthenware known as majolica, which was derived from Chinese porcelain, appeared in Italy during the last quarter of the 14th century. It is now believed that this type of painted earthenware was inspired by the Hispano-Moresque luster-decorated ware of Spanish origin introduced to Italy by Majorcan seagoing traders. Majolica ware, whether thrown on the wheel or pressed into molds, was fired once to obtain a brown or buff body, then dipped in glaze composed of lead and tin oxide with a silicate of potash. The opaque glaze presented a surface that was suitable to receive decoration. A second firing after decoration fixed the white glaze to the body and the pigments to the glaze, so that the colors became permanently preserved. Frequently, the beauty of these wares was increased by dipping them in a translucent lead glaze composed of oxide of lead mixed with sand, potash, and salt. When certain luster pigments and enamels were used in all-over painting, wares had to be specially fired at low temperature. Application of metallic luster pigments required great skill because these colors were extremely volatile and needed special handling. Luca della Robbia (see della Robbia, family) did not, as has been held, invent the enamel tin-glazing process; nevertheless, his work raised majolica production from a craft to high art in Italy. Not only did he use blue and white enamels in decorative work, but, as a sculptor, he also used the majolica technique to add brilliance to the surface of his productions. By the beginning of the 15th century Italian potters had abandoned the old familiar processes, and a revolution in style and techniques was under way. The severe style as followed principally in the school of Tuscany continued to the end of the 15th century, but rules and principles slackened until the inclusion of human figures in designs, previously frowned upon, was accepted. At the end of the 15th century Faenza became the thriving center of a reinvigorated pottery industry in Italy. A new, rich decorative style, known as istoriato, fired the imagination of potters, reaching its zenith in the workshops of Urbino. In early 17th-century England attractive slipwares were produced, including the slip-decorated earthenware that was a speciality of the Toft family of potters. A kind of tin-glazed earthenware was also produced in the Netherlands, principally at Delft, beginning in the mid-17th century. Termed delftware, it was among the first European wares to be decorated with motifs inspired by Chinese and Japanese models. Continental Porcelains Eventually, European potters, who much admired the porcelain of the Far East, attempted to imitate it, but the formula remained elusive. Francesco de Medici, grand duke of Tuscany, produced an inferior type of soft-paste porcelain in his Florence workshop during the 16th century. In March 1709, Augustus II of Saxony announced that his ceramist Johann Bottger (1682-1719) had discovered how to make porcelain. The first European royal porcelain manufactory was consequently established at Meissen (see Meissen ware) near Dresden, Germany. Throughout the century following the discovery of the porcelain formulawhen, despite the utmost precautions at Meissen, the secret leaked outmany rival factories were set up in Europe. Germany, Austria, Italy, France, and England soon had factories engaged in the production of wares much like those of Meissen. Porcelain figures were first produced in Meissen as table ornaments; the earliest examples were formed as part of sweetmeat dishes. Many splendid wares issued from the royal factory, but none were more admired than the finely modeled and decorated porcelain figures imitated by almost every German, Austrian, Italian, and English factory of note. Widespread interest in figures of both pottery and porcelain has continued to the present. Johann Joachim Kandler (1706-75), a master modeler, was the most notable of the artisans engaged in this work at Meissen and rivaled the famous Franz Anton Bustelli (1723-63) of Nymphenburg (see Nymphenburg ware). The methods used to produce porcelain figures as developed by Kandler imparted a new dimension to the art. German porcelain figures were usually produced from molds, which, in turn, were cast from an original master model made of wax, clay, or, occasionally, wood. The use of molds facilitated unlimited reproduction. Because the figures shrank during firing, allowances had to be made in their sizes; they were also provided with a small venthole in the back or base to permit excess heated air to escape. Because different factories placed these holes differently, their positions help determine the provenance and authenticity of given pieces. When considerable undercutting was necessary, porcelain figures were usually made in sections, using separate molds. Portions of elaborate groups and single figures were later joined by a specially trained assembler (known as a repairer) who usually worked from a master model. Europes second hard-paste porcelain factory began operations at Vienna in 1717. In the late 1700s at the royal Sevres (see Sevres ware) factory in France, potters experimented until they developed a remarkably white, finely textured body. Sevres wares were painted in unique colors that no other European factory could duplicate. The bleu de roi and rose Pompadour of Sevres wares captivated all Europe and, with the products of Meissen and Vienna, inspired English potters. English Wares The finest English porcelainboth soft- and hard-pastewas made between about 1745 and 1775. The first English porcelain was probably produced at Chelsea (see Chelsea ware) under Charles Gouyn, but his successor Nicholas Sprimont, a Flemish silversmith who took over management in 1750, was responsible for the high-quality wares, especially the superb figures, for which the factory became famous. Factories at Worcester (see Worcester ware), Bow, and Derby also produced wares that rival those of the Continent. Led by the ambitious, energetic, and enterprising Josiah Wedgwood and his successors at the Etruria factory, English potters in the late 18th and early 19th centuries became resourceful and inventive. Wedgwoods contributions consisted mainly of a much improved creamware, his celebrated jasperware, so-called black basalt, and a series of fine figures created by famous modelers and artists. After Wedgwood, other potters of the first half of the 19th century developed a number of new wares. Of these, Parian ware was the most outstanding and commercially successful. The name of this ware was derived from Paros, the Greek island from which sculptors in ancient times obtained the creamy or ivory-tinted marble that Parian ware resembled. The first examples of this new product, described as statuary porcelain, issued from Copeland and Garrets factory in 1842 and were immediately acclaimed. Two varieties of Parian ware were produced: statuary parian, used in the making of figures and reproductions of sculpture, and hard-paste, or standard, parian, from which hollowware was made. Statuary parian, incorporating a glassy frit, is classified as soft porcelain. Standard parian, with a greater proportion of feldspar in the composition but no frit, is hard porcelain. Early parian statuary was ivory-tinted due to the presence of iron in the feldspar devoid of iron silicate. Suitable deposits were eventually located in Sweden and Ireland. Both English and American potters either obtained details of the original formula or worked out their own, and the resulti ng production of Parian wares on both sides of the Atlantic was enormous. Among the most beautiful and successful wares invented by 19th-century potters were those decorated in what came to be known in England as pate-sur-pate, a paste-on-paste technique devised sometime after 1870 by Marc-Louis Solon (1835-1913) of Mintons in England. Pate-sur-pate, involving both modeling and painting techniques, was stained Parian ware decorated with reliefs in translucent tinted or white slip, the colors being laid one upon the other. Solon was inspired by a Chinese celadon case decorated with embossed flowers that he had admired in the museum at Sevres, where he worked for a time. At first his slip painting on biscuit porcelain simply peeled off; he was successful, however, when he applied layers of slip to a damp surface. Minton wares decorated with pate-sur-pate became the most costly and coveted ceramic ornaments produced in England in the last quarter of the 19th century. Only a few English potters mastered Solons complex technique, although the work of his pupil, Alboin Birks, rivaled that of the master. 20th-Century Developments By the late 19th century, with the development of machinery and the introduction of new technologies, the age of mass production dawned and the potters art consequently suffered. Western ceramic wares declined markedly in quality of materials and decoration. Florid designs, gaudy coloring, and inartistic shapes became fashionable, and the resulting decadence continued into the 20th century. Not until the 1930s were signs of revival in the form and decoration of ceramics discernible, principally in the productions of artist-potters who were active in Western Europe and the United States. Many of these artist-potters arrived at their innovations by way of continuous experiment with materials and techniques. Others sought inspiration from primitive types of Japanese pottery or in the forms of ancient American Indian traditions. Since the end of World War II the design and decoration of ceramics in both Europe and the United States, especially ornamental wares, has been largely influence d by individual artist-artisans. Commercial products, such as tablewares, have tended to reflect the styles and patterns developed by these potters, whose work has often shown striking originality.

Smoking as a Public Health Issue

Smoking as a Public Health Issue INTRODUCTION Smoking is an extremely crucial public health issue which is considered to be an immediate and serious threat to many developing countries across the globe (WHO 2005). Being one of the most significant determinants of increased rate of mortality and ill-health throughout the world, smoking is still a preventable epidemic (OTC 2005). Active cigarette smoking has long been known to predispose common people to several types of mouth diseases, lung cancer, atherosclerotic vascular diseases, impotence etc. and enhanced exposure to environmental tobacco smoke has deleterious effects to public health (Ong and Glantz 2004). Cigarette is utilised as an apparatus for self-administering nicotine which significantly causes drug dependency. It has been observed that nicotine inhalation via cigarette smoking is far more swift technique of drug intake as compared to heroin injections because nicotine takes not more than 7 seconds to travel from lungs into brain whereas, it takes 14 seconds for the heroin to reach the brain (DiFranza, Savageau and Fletcher et al 2007). Smoking prevalence as a global epidemic necessitates serious attention as about 1.3 billion people across the globe have been reported to smoke cigarettes and thereby experience numerous smoking-related health issues (Webb, Bain and Pirozzo 2005). In accordance with a study it has been estimated that by 2025-2030 approximately 10 million people are anticipated to die because of widespread smoking habitude (Edwards 2004). There are numerous ramifications of smoking in almost every area of knowledge including politics, economics, psychiatry, psychology, sociology, anthropology, pharmacology and pathology. This all-inclusive nature of the subject encompassing the bio-psychosocial segments of life makes it an appealing exploratory premise for the study. 1.1 Overview of the Report The report is designed to highlight the key epidemiological evidences pertaining to cigarette smoking, based on the global mortality rates and several stages of the worldwide tobacco epidemics. Moreover, the epidemiology of smoking habitude amongst general population of UK has been represented on the basis of age, gender and socio-economic factors. The central part of the report discusses a number of smoking related risk factors to public health and also evaluates the responsiveness of public towards the identified risks. Later segment of the report proposes the practical interventions to address the global epidemic of smoking which subsequently leads to conclude the overall study. 1.3 Rationale of the Study The main objective of this report is to accentuate smoking as a major public health issue and highlight the related health risks to general society based on the epidemiological evidences. By expounding on the public behaviour towards smoking and its damaging effects to the general populace, the study attempts to appraise the subject area. The report also aims to evaluate the effectiveness of current public health services pertaining to smoking cessation by probing in the interventions designed to reduce the underlying risks and improve public health. CIGARETTE SMOKING: EPIDEMIOLOGICAL EVIDENCE The epidemiological evidences suggest that the consistently augmenting patterns of smoking lead to enhance worldwide mortality rates and the recent studies suggest that the developing countries have slightly higher smoking induced mortality rate especially in men, as compared to the developed countries (Table: 01). Table: 01 Estimates of Smoking Induced Global Mortality Rates Millions of Death from Smoking (Uncertainty Range) Men Women Developed Countries 2.43 (2.13 2.78) 75% 25% Developing Countries 2.41 (1.80 3.15) 84% 16% Total 4.83 (3.94 5.93) 80% 215 Source: Ezzati and Lopez 2000 In western countries smoking prevalence has been estimated to be 30% which is considerably less as compared to Asian countries where smoking prevalence is evidently incremental as for example 53% in Japan, 63% in China and 73% in Vietnam (European Commission 2007). There has been significant variation in EU pertaining to smoking trends as for instance 18% in Sweden to 42% in Greece however; the average smoking prevalence in EU was about 32% (European Commission 2007).   The segmentation of worldwide tobacco epidemic in four different stages has been exhibited below in Figure: 01, Figure: 01 STAGES OF THE WORLDWIDE TOBACCO EPIDEMIC Source: http://www.info.cancerresearchuk.org/cancerstats/types/lung/smoking/#cancer Smoking trends in Great Britain indicate that the overall gender-specific adult smoking rates have been declined by approximately 0.4% per annum since the year 2000 (Robinson and Bugler 2008) however, the most recent statistics reveal that smoking prevalence during 2007-2008 in UK has remained more or less the same. Gender-specific cigarette smoking trends in UK during 2004-2008 are exhibited below in Table: 02, TABLE: 02 CIGARETTE SMOKING BY SEX (2004-2008), UK PERCENTAGE (%) 2004 2005 2006 2007 2007 Men 26 25 23 22 22 Women 23 23 21 20 21 All 25 24 22 21 22 Source: General Lifestyle Survey 2008 The age-specific smoking prevalence trends observed in UK indicate that the age group of women between 20-24 years i.e. approximately 31% of young women in UK are indulged in smoking behaviour and similarly, men aged between 25-34 i.e. approximately 30% of men are also found to be regular smokers (Friis and Sellers 2009). Age-specific cigarette smoking trends in UK during 1978-2008 are exhibited below in Table: 03, TABLE: 03 CIGARETTE SMOKING BY AGE (1978-2008), UK AGE % 16-19 20-24 25-34 35-49 50-59 60+ 1978 34% 44% 45% 45% 45% 30% 1988 26% 37% 36% 36% 33% 23% 1998 31% 40% 35% 31% 28% 16% 2008 22% 30% 27% 24% 22% 13% Source: General Lifestyle Survey 2008 Representing the link between cigarette smoking and socio-economic sector of the UK society, it has been observed in a survey that smoking is much more prevalent amongst people associated with routine and manual occupations which includes approximately 30% of men and 27% of women whereas, people associated with managerial and professional occupations exhibit a slightly reduced smoking trend which includes 14% of men and 14% of women following smoking behaviour (Robinson and Bugler 2008). Socio-economic classification of cigarette smoking trends in UK during 2008 are exhibited below in Table: 04, TABLE: 04 SMOKING IN UK: SOCIO-ECONOMIC CLASSIFICATION PERSONS AGED 16 AND OVER, GREAT BRITAIN: 2008 (%) Men Women Large employers and higher managerial 14 11 Higher professional 12 12 Lower managerial and professional 16 16 Intermediate 21 22 Small employers / own account 22 21 Lower supervisory and technical 26 24 Semi-routine 31 28 Routine 33 30 Source: General Lifestyle Survey 2008 SMOKING INDUCED RISK FACTORS TO PUBLIC HEALTH Smoking patterns are greatly influenced by the individuals bio-psychosocial status and considerably vary depending upon diverse factors including fiscal condition, population size, age, gender, and the existence of regulatory models. It has been studied that social pressures play an integral role in an individuals conformation towards a specific set of beliefs or behaviour and smoking too, like other forms of substance dependencies is shaped up in accordance with the surrounding environment of a smoker (Killoran et al 2006). Gender-specific smoking induced risk factors considerably fluctuate depending upon the societal, cultural and religious beliefs as for example 40% of young women in Spain have been reported to indulge in active smoking behaviour on the other hand, China remains less affected when it comes to smoking habitude in women which has been reported to be less than 5% only (European Commission 2007). Similar is the case with other Asian countries including India, Pakistan , Bangladesh etc. where smoking induced risks to women are significantly less as compared to men because of conservative culture and traditions in the region. Moreover, the statistics also exhibit that the smoking induced risk factors are less common in older age groups, in both men and women as the lowest ratio of smoking has been observed amongst people aged 60 and over (Merrill 2010) because younger generation is much more enthusiastic to experiment and usually exhibits callous attitude towards health risks. There has been a sustained and analogous pattern of smoking induced risks observed between both the manual and non-manual populace of the socio-economic sector in UK, which signifies the growing awareness of public towards the underlying public health issue. Apart from bio-psychosocial risk factors there are a number of other smoking related risks to public health which are summarised as follows: 3.1 Passive Smoking Second hand smoking, environmental smoking or passive smoking are all detrimental and risk the life of a non-smoker that is consciously or unconsciously exposed to hazardous effects of smoking induced chemical compounds and probable human carcinogens. Passive smoking has been identified as the most critical cause of smoking related ill-health and incremental mortalities in general population, due to lung cancers and coronary heart diseases. 3.2 Tobacco Carcinogenesis Excessive tobacco consumption in the form of cigarette, cigar, pipe smoking enhances the risk to mouth, larynx, and oesophagus cancers and if complimented by heavy alcohol intake, can subsequently trigger the tumours in tobacco carcinogenesis (DoH 2007). 3.3 Occupational Hazards Persistent interaction between smoking and a variety of industrial agents can develop a number of cancers as suggested by numerous experimental and epidemiologic data. It has been studied that the smokers working within the environment containing asbestos or uranium ores significantly provides the means to stimulate tobacco carcinogens and an increased risk of lung cancer (DoH 2007). 3.4 Coronary Heart Diseases Several studies suggest that cigarette smoking significantly contributes in premature sudden death from coronary diseases especially in populations where arteriosclerosis is prevalent thus, exerting a pronounced secondary effect to hyperlipidemia and hypercholesteremia subsequently increasing the risk of hypertension and heart attack (Ong and Glantz 2004). Air Pollution Studies suggest that excessive air pollution complimented by cigarette smoking, leads to death from acute pulmonary disease and lung cancer. The carcinogens contained in pollutant air is inhaled in relatively small doses and on the other hand, cigarette smoke is highly concentrated and inhaled directly into the lungs therefore, the damaged caused to the respiratory tract by the air pollution alone, is comparatively less than the damage caused by the intense tobacco smoke. However, for non-smokers the passive smoking in combination with the pollutant air can be a serious risk to health as heavily polluted air contains approximately 100,000 particles per cubic centimetre whereas inhaled cigarette smoke contains more than 5 billion particles per cubic centimetre (Webb, Bain and Pirozzo 2005). ANALYSING PUBLIC RESPONSIVENESS TO THE IDENTIFIED RISKS Despite of consistent efforts by the local governments and numerous international health organisations, it has been observed that the public awareness programs regarding smoking cessation are considered to be effective to varying degrees; as it is extremely difficult to determine the consumers perception towards the smoking related health consequences and addictive nature (Bauld et al 2003). The consumer base in the developing countries remain exceedingly unacquainted with the country-specific smoking related information and health policies as the preventive interventions like awareness campaigns, registration system to assess disease patterns and the identification of smoking related trends are not vigilantly established. Moreover, the consumer base in the developing countries expect low-cost and reliable preventive measures however, the fiscal limitations makes it difficult for the local governments to entrench inexpensive and equally effective smoking awareness schemes and interve ntions; as a result of which the public responsiveness towards addressing the smoking epidemic is significantly pitiful especially where it looms largest. In addition to this, smoking cessation becomes a complex issue due to its addictive attribute and several studies have rated it as amongst the most evil drug dependency as compared to heroin and cocaine (Donaldson and Donaldson 2003). The addictive trait of cigarette smoking is characterised by a cluster of behavioural, cognitive and physiological phenomena which consequently develops due to enhanced substance use resulting in increased desire for smoking which becomes a persistent exercise and as the time passes, the chances of withdrawal becomes unattainable. It has also been studied that the superfluous social acceptance of smoking has significantly contributed to its sweeping popularity and prevalence amongst the general population (Marmott and Wilkinson 2006) and this ignorant public attitude combined with lack of awareness; results in natural inclination of the masses to consider it a harmless and a nontoxic habitude (Stevens, Raftery, Mant and Simpson 2004). From the economic perspective, the tobacco industry generates humungous revenues by influencing the developing countries as a profitable target for market expansion, which is mutually advantageous to the developing countries leading them to compromise on their public health issues against enhanced fiscal benefits. Tobacco industry considerably influences the political set-up of several countries to advertise and promote cigarette smoking and their intriguing commercial campaigning significantly draw the attention of younger generation that are already less-informed and easily fall prey to such marketing tactics. Pre-targeted and smartly designed commercials significantly mislead the naive public and successfully manoeuvre them by relentless denial of tobaccos unfavourable health impacts. PRACTICAL INTERVENTIONS FOR SMOKING EPIDEMIC The smoking related health outcomes can be substantially controlled by integrating effective tobacco control policies and interventions that are capable to cease or significantly reduce its prevalence and consumption amongst the general population. It has been studied that tobacco smoking does not limit the effects of its pervasiveness to smoker itself rather the people present in the surrounding environment (Farmer and Lawrenson 2004) as for example, non-smoking adults including cohabiting partners and children of the smoker are also adversely affected. Hence, it becomes essential to edify the smokers to acknowledge their social responsibility towards the general public and strongly discourage them to exhibit their smoking habitude in public (Douglas et al 2007). The success rate of the practical interventions adopted in the developed countries has found to be much practicable as compared to the developing countries because the regulatory frameworks are stringent and the law enforce ment agencies are also equally efficient. In order to enable the general population to effectively combat with smoking-related public health issues, it is imperative to establish prudently designed and effectually devised practical interventions; for discouraging cigarette smokers and providing maximum protection to children, pregnant women, elders and other non-smoking adults by entrenching a number of the below mentioned tobacco controlling key initiatives: 5.1 Establish a Highly Informative Setting A highly informative environment can be established by effectively conveying the most updated and evidence-based tobacco related public health information to the general population and specifically highlighting all the associated risk factors. The local governments must exhibit maximum commitment towards smoking cessation campaigns by formulating effective regulatory framework and providing suitable means to the healthcare professionals to implement it (Scott and Mazhindu 2005). Highly developed countries and the international health organisations must also facilitate the poor countries by financing the research projects to evaluate causes, consequences and costs of tobacco use in the respective regions and thereby, devise a preventive strategy accordingly. 5.2 Media Campaigning Media is the most constructive tool to speedily communicate with the masses therefore, it is imperative to utilise both print and electronic media for positive campaigning and specifically rope-in the e-media to target todays internet savvy, younger generation. In the wide-ranging interest of public health, it is the social responsibility of media world to completely prohibit the enticing cigarette advertisements and instead make noble use of the media by broadcasting regular public service messages to discourage the prevailing smoking behaviours. 5.3 Stringent Policies to Reduce Tobacco Consumption Substantial increase in tobacco prices can significantly reduce its consumption especially amongst younger generation or those that are unable to afford. Governments must also concentrate on formulating such policies that can completely forbid the promotional campaigns and considerably restrict the sales through vending machines (DoH 2007). Since smoking is one of the most prevailing global epidemics therefore; strict rules and regulations shall be imposed to discourage smoking in public places as for example bus stops, restaurants, educational institutions, offices, hospitals and cinemas etc. This would not only limit its consumption but will also signify the governments seriousness towards addressing the underlying public health issues. Moreover, the tobacco industry shall be consistently introduced to consistent and rigorous tax networks so that the target of promoting controlled use of cigarette smoking can be achieved (DoH 2007). On the other hand, governments can attain dual be nefits by expanding the tax network for the tobacco industry thus reducing its consumption amongst general populace and can generate more taxed revenue. 5.4 Discouraging Nicotine Dependency Regular smokers become heavily reliant upon nicotine intake and therefore, seek for certain other alternatives as a substitute to cigarettes including chewable tobacco, tablets, patches and inhalers, if their accessibility to cigarette smoking has been disrupted. The governments while designing smoking related preventive strategies must acknowledge that nicotine is highly addictive and therefore, it is wise to introduce less-harmful and inexpensive alternatives to regular cigarettes and subsequently educate them to overcome their nicotine dependency by adopting practical interventions through professional medical assistance (Prabhat, Chaloupka, Corrao and Binu 2006). Moreover, the developed countries and international health organisations can also donates such inexpensive nicotine alternatives to poor and deprived countries in order to promote smoking cessation and healthy living across the globe. 5.5 Support Groups Nicotine dependency significantly damages the internal health of people which restricts them to participate in healthy sports activities. Governments can help the local bodies to establish tobacco control support groups in their respective neighbourhoods and to organise healthy activities and events to promote constructive attitude amongst general population. A strategically designed tobacco control program also facilitates in mobilising the civil society to effectively contribute both their money and time to engage nicotine dependent people in healthy activities (Prabhat, Chaloupka, Corrao and Binu 2006) and thereby, motivating them to overcome their cigarette smoking habitude. Formation of such support groups provide easy and consistent access of tobacco-specific valuable information to the smokers and also enhance their awareness to the associated risk factors. CONCLUSION Smoking has been established as a consistently prevailing global epidemic and that is so, because the related effects of smoking are not restricted to the smoker himself, but also extend to others through a range of risk factors including passive smoking and air pollution etc. which makes it a substantial risk to public health. Provided the fact, it is not only essential to discourage smoking behaviour in smokers but also educate the non-smokers to protect themselves from the associated health risks. Apart from individual preventive measures, there is a growing need for integrating practical interventions to ensure reduced exposure to tobacco smoke especially in public places by providing separate smoking and non-smoking areas or installing ventilation or completely banning smoking through industry led voluntary agreements or by introducing stringent statutory requirements. To conclude, cigarette smoking is radically injurious to public health and honest efforts are required at both individual and communal level to enhance public awareness towards the associated risks and particularly support the smokers to quit their smoking habit. Smoking as a Public Health Issue Smoking as a Public Health Issue It is now a matter of common public acceptance that smoking causes ill health. This statement can be backed up by huge amounts of authoritative literature (Dobson et al 1999) (Smoking Kills 1998) (Choosing Health 2001) The subject of this essay however, is whether or not it is a Public Health issue. We will argue strongly that it is and produce evidence to support this stance. The Wanless Report (2002 ) defines Public Health as â€Å"The science and art of preventing disease, prolonging life and promoting health through organised efforts and informed choices of society, organisations – public and private, communities and individuals† On that basis we would suggest that the argument is already made since there is little doubt that smoking – both active and passive – will shorten life and cause disease. The evidence to support this statement comes from papers such as that by Prescott ( et al. 1998) who carried out a huge study looking into the effects of primary smoking and the risk of myocardial ischaemia in the general population. The results of the study were absolutely unequivocal with a finding of an increased risk of myocardial infarction in women of 2.24 and in men of 1.43. the reasons for the sex difference are several including genetic factors (Bennett 2004) and hormonal factors (Chapman 1999) To take a step further back, we have to define Health An authoritative definition of Health comes from the WHO who currently tell us that health is â€Å"a state of complete physical, mental and social well being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity. ( WHO 1992). A difficulty with this definition is that today many people confuse the attainment of happiness with the attainment of health (Kemm 2001). Ironically, in the context of this essay, Freud also offered us an observation on the definition of Health when he observed that most people equated well-being with happiness rather than health (Freud 1975) and he amplified this by observing that he had been advised by his doctors to give up cigars in order to improve his health. He commented that he was far more healthy but much less happy (Saracci 1997). Although Freud’s comment was clearly flippant, it does exemplify a deeper truth, that part of the problem with smoking is the pleasure that some people derive from it. One can always advance the argument that in a free society one should always have freedom of choice to damage yourself if you wish. (Hegel 1971) That is clearly the case, but in adopting that view you must also accept two further consequences of that position. One is that society is expected to pick up the bill when you are ill (via the NHS) and that by smoking, you may not only damage yourself but you may well damage others through the medium of passive smoking. (Kuhse Singer 2001) It is these latter points which actually make the issue one of Public Health. The Public (in general terms) are expected to fund the necessary treatment when you become ill. This is not an isolated incident as over 200,000 patients are diagnosed annually with some form of smoking related malignancy and over 120,000 will die from the disease. This is quite independent of those that develop other complications of smoke-related illness. (NHS Cancer Plan 2000). If you add to this number, the carers and the other economic costs to the community, the argument that it is not a Public Health issue clearly fails. We have raised the issue of passive smoking as one of the criteria for suggesting that smoking is an issue of public health. The evidence for this is rapidly accumulating. We can point to the cleverly designed study by He (et al.2004) which  was able to point to the statistical differences in illness rates between those industrial workers who had a constantly smoky atmosphere to breathe and those who were able to avoid it. There is little doubt that choosing to smoke where others will inhale the smoke is a demonstrably anti social behaviour. As if to underline our view, we can point to the fact that the Government takes a similar view as it has produced a series of Government White Papers (Choosing Health 2004) (Building on the Best 2003) and regulations (Saving lives 1999) which are all aimed at improving the health of the nation by reducing its collective exposure to cigarette smoke References Bennett Gottleib 2004 Passive smoking more risky for women with a missing gene. 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